Sample of Comparrison and Contrast

The T-Bird Versus The Rabbit

            Many cars on the market for sale. Toyota, Mercedes Benz, Mitsubishi, and other, but we will comparison and contrast between T-Bird (Ford Thunder Bird) and Rabbit (Volkswagen Rabbit). Both of that have similarities and differences.

            Before describe the difference, we describe the similarities between them. The same is both of them an attractive cars. Then, both of them can seat five people comfortably. Furthermore, the T-Bird and the Rabbit have 12.000-mile warranty.

And the differences between them is about physical dimensions, equipment, and fuel consumption and economy. In physical dimension the T-Bird measures 199 inches, but the Rabbit just 156 inches. And the difference of size between that two cars is three feet. The equipment, fuel consumption and economy, there are also have differences so on.

CROSS CULTURE UNDERSTANDING

Istilah komunikasi berasal dari kata Latin Communicare atau Communis yang berarti sama atau menjadikan milik bersama. Artinya apa yang kita sampaikan, baik berupa ilmu atau apapun itu selama dalam bentuk komunikasi berarti kita telah berusaha untuk memberikan ilmu dan informasi kepada orang lain yang pasti nantinya akan dapat diketahui oleh orang lain tersebut.

Sedangkan Budaya atau kebudayaan berasal dari bahasa Sanskerta yaitu buddhi artinya sikap atau perilaku dan dhayaa yang artinya kemampuan atau akal. Hal tersebut dikaitkan dengan budi dan akal manusia. Dalam bahasa Inggris, kebudayaan disebut culture, yang berasal dari kata Latin Colere, yaitu mengolah atau mengerjakan. Bisa diartikan juga bertani. Kata culture juga diadopsi kedalam bahasa Indonesia yaitu "kultur".

Budaya merupakan pola hidup menyeluruh yang bersifat kompleks, abstrak, dan luas. budaya tentunya sangat menentukan pola perilaku komunikatif manusia. Komunikasi antar budaya adalah proses dimana saling alih-mengalihkan ide atau gagasan dari satu budaya terhadap budaya yang lain. Dan hal ini bisa melibatkan dua kebudayaan atau lebih, tujuannya untuk saling mempengaruhi, baik itu untuk kebaikan atau menghancurkan sebuah kebudayaan, atau bisa jadi sebagai tahap awal dari proses akulturasi.

komunikasi mempunyai peranan penting didalam kehidupan manusia. Peranan itulah yang akhinya berfungsi mempengaruhi kehidupan manusia, fungsi komunikasi tersebut diantaranya mendapatkan informasi dari orang lain, dapat mencukupi kebutuhan pribadi, membangun identitas diri bahkan juga dapat mempengaruhi orang lain.

Globalisasi tentunya diperlukan dalam komunikasi antar budaya. Karena globalisasi memiliki peranan penting dalam hubungan komunikasi antar manusia (budaya) yaitu dengan saling keterbukaan antar manusia. Selain itu, manusia tentunya merupakan makhluk social yang sangat tergantung pada orang lain, melalui proses globalisasi inilah manusia bias saling membantu orang lain yang membutuhkan walaupun terdapat perbedaan dalam hal sosial ataupun budaya.

Globalisasi bias dibilang relevan dalam perkembangan kontemporer, karena berpengaruh dalam mendorong munculnya kemungkinan tentang perubahan dunia. Dengan kata lain globalisasi membawa konsep baru dalam tatanan dunia yang saat ini telah menjadi realita dan sangat mempengaruhi perkembangan sosial dan budaya manusia. Beberapa hal yang terkait dengan globalisasi di antaranya pasar internasional, teknologi, dan sumber daya alam, dan masih banyak yang lainnya.

Agama dalam sejarahnya selalu bergandengan dengan budaya. Tentunya agama memiliki kekuatan sendiri yang mempengaruhi pola sosial dan budaya manusia. Contohnya agama Islam, didalamnya terdapat ritual-ritual ibadah telah terakulturuasi seolah-olah hal itu telah menjadi budaya didalamnya contohnya Hari Raya ‘Idul Fitri, atau agam Kristen dengan Natal nya dan agama Budha dengan Waisak nya. Kenapa agama bisa terakulturasi dengan kebudayaan? Karena agama memiliki symbol dan symbol itulah yang menjadi kekuatan atas agama. Kita beri contoh kasus yang terjadi akhir-akhir ini, film Innocent of Moeslim dimana Nabi Muhammad sebagai aktor yang merupakan simbol dari umat Islam itu dihina, dijatuhkan derajatnya seolah-olah tidak memiliki kemuliaan sedikit pun. Tentunya orang Islam marah, karena mengetahui nabi nya (simbol) diolok-olok seperti itu. Tidak peduli apakah ia suka melaksanakan ibadah atau tidak, selama ia termasuk kedalam agama tersebut dan simbolnya di rusak orang lain maka ia akan membela simbolnya tersebut dengan atau tanpa alasan.

Komunikasi non-verbal adalah setiap bentuk perilaku manusia yang langsung dapat diamati oleh orang lain dan yang mengandung informasi tertentu tentang pelakunya. Komunikasi non-verbal adalah proses komunikasi dimana pesan disampaikan tidak menggunakan kata-kata. Contoh komunikasi nonverbal ialah menggunakan gerak isyarat, bahasa tubuh, ekspresi wajah dan kontak mata, penggunaan objek seperti pakaian, potongan rambut, dan sebagainya, simbol-simbol, serta cara berbicara seperti intonasi, penekanan, kualitas suara, gaya emosi, dan gaya berbicara. Komunikasi juga mempunyai fungsi, yaitu sebagai berikut :

Fungsi pertama : Repetisi

Perilaku nonverbal dapat mengulangi perilaku verbal. Misalnya, Anda menganggukkan kepala ketika mengatakan "Ya," atau menggelengkan kepala ketika mengatakan "Tidak," atau menunjukkan arah (dengan telunjuk) ke mana seseorang harus pergi untuk menemukan WC.

Fungsi Kedua : Subtitusi

Perilaku nonverbal dapat menggantikan perilaku verbal, jadi tanpa berbicara Anda bisa berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Misalnya, seorang pengamen mendatangi mobil Anda kemudian tanpa mengucapkan sepatah katapun Anda menggoyangkan tangan Anda dengan telapak tangan mengarah ke depan (sebagai kata pengganti "Tidak"). Isyarat nonverbal yang menggantikan kata atau frasa inilah yang disebut emblem.

Fungsi Ketiga : Kontradiksi

Perilaku nonverbal dapat membantah atau bertentangan dengan perilaku verbal dan bisa memberikan makna lain terhadap pesan verbal . Misalnya, Anda memuji prestasi teman sambil mencibirkan bibir.

Fungsi Keempat : Aksentuasi

Memperteguh, menekankan atau melengkapi perilaku verbal. Misalnya, menggunakan gerakan tangan, nada suara yang melambat ketika berpidato. Isyarat nonverball tersebut disebut affect display.

Fungsi Kelima : Komplemen

Perilaku Nonverbal dapat meregulasi perilaku verbal. Misalnya, saat kuliah akan berakhir, Anda melihat jam tangan dua-tiga kali sehingga dosen segera menutup kuliahnya.

Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi untuk berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Karena peranannya, bahasa bisa dikatakan with language we can depend on the water, the sea, the earth, other people and our life. Bahasa sangat bervariatif, contohnya didalam bahasa inggris, English British dengan English American tentunya memiliki perbedaan, baik itu dalam bahasanya ataupun dalam pengucapannya.

Dalam satu negara terdapat banyak bahasa yang berasaldari daerah-daerah di sebuah Negara tersebut dan kita menyebutnya sebagai bahasa daerah. Contohnya Negara Indonesia, Indonesia memiliki bahasa daerah yang bervariatif, contohnya bahasa sunda, batak, jawa, manado, minang, dll.

Selain itu, bahasa manusia biasa digunakan untuk berinteraksi dengan hewan-hewan seperti kucing, anjing, ayam, dll.

LITERATURE METHODS

INTRODUCTIONS
            the central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, many writers favoured some kind of ‘free’ translation: the spirit, not the letter : the sense not the words : the massage rather than the form : the matter not the manner. This was the often revolutionary slogan of writers who wanted the truth to be read and understood – Tyndale and Dolet were burned at the stake, Wyeliffs works were banned. Then at the turn of the nineteenth century, when the study of cultural anthropology suggested that the linguistic barriers were insuperable  and that language was entirely the product of culture, the view that translation was impossible gained some currency, and with it that, if attempted at all, it must be as literal as possible. This view culminated in the statement of the extreme ‘literalists’ Walter Benjamin and Vladimir Nabokov.

            The argument was theoretical: the purpose of the translation, the nature of readership, the type of text, was not discussed. Too often, writer, translator and reader were implicitly identified with each other. Now the context has changed, but the basic problem remains.

            I put it in the form of a flattened V diagram :

SL emphasis                                                                                                               TL emphasis

            Word-for word translation                                                                              Adaptation

                        Literal translation                                                                    Free translation

                                    Faithful translation                                          idiomatic translation

                                                Semantic translation                communicative translation

THE METHODS           

Word-of-word translation

            This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meaning, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use word-for word translation is either to understands the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.

Literal translation

The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problem to be solved.

Faithful translation

            A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It ‘transfers’ cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer.

Semantic translation

            Semantic translation differs from ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on ‘meaning’ where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents – une nonne repasssant un corporal may become ‘a nun ironing a corporal cloth’ – and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between ‘faithful’ and ‘semantic’ translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator’s intuitive empathy with the original.  

Adaptation

            This is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry : the themes, characters, plots, are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable practice of having a play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have ‘rescued’ periods plays.

Free translation

            Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called ‘intralingual translation’, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all.

Idiomatic translation

            Idiomatic translation reproduces the ‘massage’ of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist the original. (Authorities as diverse as Seleskovitch and Stuart Gilbert tend to this form of lively, ‘natural’ translation.)

Communicative translation

            Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. 

COMMENTS IN THESE METHODS

            Commenting on these methods, I should first say that only semantic and communicative translation fulfil the two main aims of translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy. (A semantic translation is more likely to be economical than a communicative translation, unless, for the latter, the text is poorly written) in general, a semantic translation is written at the author’s linguistic level a communicative at the readership’s. Semantic translation is used for ‘expressive’ texts, communicative for ‘informative’ and ‘vocative’ texts.

            Semantic and communicative translation treat the following items similarly: stock and dead metaphors. Normal collocations, technical terms, slang, colloquialisms, standard notice, phaticisms, ordinary language. The expressive components of ‘expressive’ texts are rendered closely, if not literally, but where they appear in informative and vocative texts, they are normalized or toned down. Cultural components tend to be transferred intact in expressive texts : replaced by cultural equivalents in vocative texts. Badly and/or inaccurately written passages must remain so in translation if they are ‘expressive’ although the translator should comment on any mistakes of factual or normal truth, if appropriate. Badly and/or inaccurately written passage should be ‘corrected; in communicative translation. I refer to ‘expressive’ as ‘sacred’ texts : ‘informative’ and ‘vocative’. Following Jean Delisle, as ‘anonymous’, since the status of their authors is not important.

            So much for the detail, but semantic and communicative translation must also bi seen as wholes. Semantic translation is personal and individual, follow the thought processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact. Communicative translation is social, concentrates on the massage and the main force of the text, tends to under translate, to be simple, clear and brief, and is always written in a natural and resourceful style. A semantic translation is normally inferior to its original, as there is both cognitive and pragmatic loss ; a communicative translation is often better than its original. At the pinch, a semantic translation has to interpret, a communicative translation to explain.

            Theoretically, communicative translation allows the translator no more freedom than semantic translation. In fact, it does, since the translator is serving a putative large and not well defined authority, the author of the SL text.

METHODS AND TEXT-CATEGORIES

            Considering the application of the two translation methods to the three categories. I suggest that commonly vocative and informative texts are translated too literally, and expressive texts not literally enough. Translationese is the bane of tourist material and many public notices. In the UK the standard of foreign language (FL) publicity and notices is now high but there are not enough of them. In ‘informative’ texts, translationese, bad writing and lack of confidence in the appropriate linguistic register often go hand in hand; the tendency with familiar-looking but unfamiliar collocations is simply to reproduce them. On the other hand, the inaccuracy of translated literature has much longer roots: the attempt to see translation as an exercise in style, to get the ‘ flavour ’ or the ‘spirit’ of the original : the refusal to translate by any TL word that looks the least bit like the SL word, or even by the SL cord’s core meaning, so that the translation become the sequence of synonyms, which distorts its essence.

            In expressive texts, the unit of translation is likely to be small, since words rather than sentences contain the finest nuances of meaning; further, there are likely to be fewer stock language units than I other texts. However, any type and length of cliché must be translated by its TL counterpart, however badly it reflects on the writer.

            Note that I group informative and vocative texts together as suitable for communicative translation. However, further distinctions can be made.

            Unless informative texts are badly/inaccurately written, they are translated more closely than vocative texts. In principle (only!), as they are concerned with extra-linguistic facts, they consist of third person sentences, not-emotive style, past tenses. Narrative a sequence of events, is likely to be neater and closer to translate than description, which requires the mental perception of adjectives and images.

            The translation of vocative texts immediately involves translation in the problem of the second person. The social factor which varies in its grammatical and lexical reflection from one language to another. Further, vocative texts exemplify the two poles of communicative translation. On the one hand translation by standard terms and phrases is used mainly for notices: ‘transit lounge’, transithalle, sale de transit. On the other hand there is in principle, the ‘recreative’ translation that might be considered appropriate for publicity and propaganda, since the situation is more important than the language. In fact, provided is no cultural gap, such skillfully written persuasive language is often seen to translate almost literally.

            Scanning the numerous multilingual advertising leaflets available today, I notice: (a) it is hardly possible to say which is the original: (b) how closely they translate they other; (c) the more emotive their language, the more they vary from each other; (d) the variants appear justified.

            Where communicative translation of advertisements  works so admirably, producing equivalent pragmatic effect, there seem no need to have recourse to ‘co-writing’, whre two writers are given a number of basic facts about one product and instructed to write the most persuasive advert in their respective languages.

            I should mention that I have describing methods of translation as products rather than processes, as they appear in the finished translation.

TRANSLATING

            As for the process of translation, it is often dangerous to translate mor than a sentence orv two before reading the first two or three paragraphs, unless a quick glance through convinces you that the text is going to present few problems. In fact, the more difficult – linguistically, culturally, ‘referentially’ – the text is, the more preliminary work I advise you to do before you start translating a sentence, simply on the ground that one misjudged hunch about a key-word in a text - say, humoral in le bilan humoral (a fluid balance check-up) – may force you to try to put a wrong construction on a whole paragraph, wasting a lot of time before (if ever) you pull up and realize you are being foolish. This is another way of looking at the word versus sentence conflict that is always coming up. Translate by sentence wherever you can, whenever you can see the wood for the trees or get the general sense, and then make sure you have accounted for each word in the SL text. There are plenty of words, like modals particles, jargon-words or grammatically-bound words, which for goo reasons you may decide not to translate. But translate virtually by words first if they are ‘technical’, whether they are ‘linguistic’, or cultural, or referential and appear relatively context-free. Later, you have to contextualize them, and be prepared to back-track if you have opted for the wrong technical meaning.

OTHER METHODS

As a postscript to this chapter, I add further definitions of translation methods.

1.      Service translation

2.      Plain prose translation

3.      Information translation

4.      Cognitive translation

5.      Academic translation